pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.20006 · v1 · pith:VTZIVITVnew · submitted 2026-06-18 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

A Virgo Environmental Survey Tracing Ionised Gas Emission (VESTIGE) XX. Star formation in the tidal tail of NGC 4254

A. Boselli , A. Lupi , P. Serra , P. Andreani , F. Calura , M-A. Miville-Deschenes , G. Hensler , M. Boquien
show 21 more authors
M. Fossati S. Boissier J. Braine P. Cote J.C. Cuillandre F. de Gasperin H. Edler L. Ferrarese G. Gavazzi S. Gwyn J. Hutchings K. Kianfar A. Longobardi E.S. Mangola S. Martocchia E. Peng H. Plana J. Postma J. Roediger Y. Roehlly M. Sun
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 16:53 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords ALMA observationsgiant molecular cloudsstar formationVirgo clusterNGC 4254tidal tailHI gas strippinggalaxy interactions
0
0 comments X

The pith

ALMA detects ten giant molecular clouds in the tidal tail of NGC 4254 that formed from stripped gas but dissolve in 10-30 Myr.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper establishes that star formation occurs in the HI gas tail of the Virgo galaxy NGC 4254 through the detection of ten giant molecular clouds in four regions. These clouds have masses of roughly 10^6 solar masses, column densities around 10 solar masses per square parsec, and velocity dispersions of 3-12 km/s, matching the Schmidt law seen in galactic disks. Analytic calculations and simulations show the clouds are gravitationally unstable and will dissolve on timescales of 10-30 million years after forming from dense gas that collapsed in the tail stripped during an interaction hundreds of millions of years ago. A reader would care because this clarifies whether stripped gas in clusters can sustain star formation or is quickly dispersed into the intracluster medium.

Core claim

ALMA 12CO(1-0) observations of 42 star-forming regions in the HI tail of NGC 4254 reveal ten giant molecular clouds with molecular gas masses of (0.8-2.0) x 10^6 solar masses. These clouds follow the gas column density versus star formation relation derived for the stellar disk and other galaxies. Analytic calculations and tuned simulations demonstrate that the clouds are unstable and expected to dissolve on timescales of 10-30 Myr, having formed from the collapse of dense gas clouds in the tail produced by gravitational interaction with another cluster member several hundred million years ago.

What carries the argument

The ten ALMA-resolved giant molecular clouds whose gravitational instability and short dissolution timescale are demonstrated by analytic calculations and tuned simulations.

If this is right

  • The clouds are short-lived and isolated because the low-density intracluster medium cannot confine gas expelled by stellar feedback.
  • The clouds formed after collapse of dense gas in the HI tail stripped during the galaxy's gravitational interaction.
  • Star formation in such tails is possible but transient, limiting the long-term contribution of stripped gas to cluster star formation.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • This process may apply to other tidally or ram-pressure stripped galaxies in clusters, producing only brief episodes of star formation.
  • Observations of additional Virgo galaxies could test whether GMC formation in tails is common yet always short-lived.
  • The results imply that most stars formed from stripped gas appear early in an interaction, before the gas disperses.

Load-bearing premise

The analytic calculations and simulations correctly capture the gravitational instability and dissolution timescale without significant additional confining pressure from the intracluster medium.

What would settle it

Detection of molecular gas or ongoing star formation persisting in the tail beyond 30 Myr, or evidence that the intracluster medium confines the expelled gas, would falsify the short dissolution timescale.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.20006 by A. Boselli, A. Longobardi, A. Lupi, E. Peng, E.S. Mangola, F. Calura, F. De Gasperin, G. Gavazzi, G. Hensler, H. Edler, H. Plana, J. Braine, J.C. Cuillandre, J. Hutchings, J. Postma, J. Roediger, K. Kianfar, L. Ferrarese, M-A. Miville-Deschenes, M. Boquien, M. Fossati, M. Sun, P. Andreani, P. Cote, P. Serra, S. Boissier, S. Gwyn, S. Martocchia, Y. Roehlly.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: GALEX NUV (left), FUV ASTROSAT/UVIT (centre), and continuum-subtracted Hα (right) images of the galaxy NGC 4254. The cyan contour shows the H i column density at Σ(H i) = 0.1, 0.5, 1 M⊙ pc−2 at 27′′ angular resolution. The star-forming regions located outside the stellar disc and identified in Boselli et al. (2018b) and studied in this work are indicated with red circles (see Fig. D.1 for their identificat… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: H i gas distribution around the CO detected regions. The beam size of the MeerKAT observations (yellow ellipse) is 30.5′′× 24.5′′ and the position angle is PA = 165 degrees, while the beam size of ALMA is ≃ 2 ′′. The green contours show the detected molecular gas at column density Σ(H2) = 1 M⊙ pc−2 ; the cyan contours show the H i at column densities Σ(H i) = 0.1, 1, 5 M⊙ pc−2 . Red contours show the Hα su… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Left column: Continuum-subtracted Hα images of the molecular clouds detected by ALMA in the CO(1-0) emission line. Assuming a Chabrier IMF, [N ii]λ6583Å/Hα=0.2, and A(Hα)=0.7 mag as in Boselli et al. (2018b). An observed Hα surface bright￾ness of Σ(Hα)=10−16 erg s−1 cm−2 arcsec−2 corresponds to Σ(SFR) = 3.8×10−3 M⊙ yr−1 kpc−2 . Central column: UVIT BaF2 images. Right column: GALEX NUV images. The green con… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Relationship between the CO line width and the radius of the GMCs detected outside the stellar disc of NGC 4254 (red dots) compared to those in the Milky Way (black dots, from Miville-Deschenes et al. 2017). ˆ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Density distribution of the GMCs detected outside the stellar disc of NGC 4254 (red shaded histogram) compared to the one of the GMC in the Milky Way (black histogram, from Miville-Deschenes et al. 2017). The left Y-axis gives the number ˆ of Galactic GMCs; the right Y-axis shows the number of GMCs in the outskirts of NGC 4254. Way or of other galaxies such as M33 are less turbulent and are thus characteri… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Pixel-by-pixel molecular gas column density versus SFR surface density relation derived after smoothing the Hα imaging data to the angular resolution of ALMA (∼ 2 ′′, corresponding to ∼ 160 pc). Only 3σ and 2σ detections are considered in the CO and Hα line, respectively. Red filled squares represent pixels representing external star-forming regions of NGC 4254. Green triangles indicate 3σ upper limits. Th… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Relation between the age of the observed H ii regions de￾rived with SED fitting in Boselli et al. (2018b) and their pro￾jected distance from the nucleus of NGC 4254 (in kpc). Red dots are for the regions detected in CO. The long-dashed red vertical line indicates the 23.5 mag arcsec−2 i-band isophotal radius of the galaxy [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Relationship between the virial ratio αvir and the molec￾ular gas mass of the GMCs in the outskirts of NGC 4254 (red dots) and in the Milky Way (black dots, from Miville-Deschenes ˆ et al. 2017). The horizontal dashed black line gives the critical limit of αvir = 2, above which GMCs are expected to dissolve. The four external star-forming regions detected in CO have stel￾lar populations with typical ages 1… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Star-formation history and gas evolution in the two wind tunnel ramses simulations. Red lines show the SFR evolution for the FW (solid) and SW (dashed) models. Blue lines indicate the gas mass fraction inside the domain, normalised to the initial value, for the FW (solid) and SW (dashed) models. For compar￾ison, the typical SFR observed in the studied regions is SFR ≃ 10−3 M⊙ yr−1 . bedded in a hot ICM wi… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Slice through the centre of the gas cloud from the gizmo HDRest run (with a static ICM) after 16 Myr. The black dots represent single stars formed during the simulation. gizmo simulations), we tentatively explain the origin of the star￾forming clouds. The two simulations differ both in numerical technique and initial setup. This produces some differences in the star-formation history of the cloud, which a… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Column density maps of the gas clouds from the fast wind gizmo simulations after 16 (left panels) and 25 (right panels) Myr. The upper and lower rows are for simulations without and with ideal magnetohydrodynamics (HD, MHD), respectively. The wind flows from left to right. The black dots represent single stars formed during the simulation. 10 4 10 3 10 2 _ M (M ¯ y r ¡1) HDRest HD MHD 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Top: Star formation history in the gizmo simulations. The HDRest run (static ICM) is shown as a dotted purple line, whereas the fast wind ones are shown as a solid orange line (HD) and a dashed green line (MHD). Bottom: Gas mass evolution in the three gizmo runs, normalised to the initial cloud mass. We show molecular gas in red and the ionised gas in blue, respec￾tively, following the line style of the t… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

ALMA 12CO(1-0) observations of 42 star-forming regions located outside the disc of the Virgo Cluster galaxy NGC4254 within an HI gas tail produced during the galaxy's interaction with another cluster member have revealed the presence of ten giant molecular clouds (GMCs) in four of these regions. All of the GMCs were resolved at the angular resolution of the observations (~160 pc) and have molecular gas masses of M(H2)~(0.8-2.0)x10^6} Mo. These ten clouds are characterised by gas column densities [S(H2)~10 Mo pc^-2] and velocity dispersions [sigma_v(CO)~3-12 km s^-1] respectively lower and comparable to those encountered in similar GMCs in the Milky Way. They follow the relation between the gas column density and the star formation activity (Schmidt law) derived using similar data over the stellar disc of NGC4254 and other local and Virgo cluster galaxies. With analytic calculations and tuned simulations, we show that these clouds are unstable and thus expected to dissolve on relatively short timescales (~10-30 Myr). We show that they probably formed after the collapse of dense gas clouds in the HI gas tail stripped during the gravitational interaction that the galaxy suffered several hundreds millions of years ago. The clouds are short-lived and isolated given the low density of the surrounding intracluster medium, which cannot confine the gas expelled by stellar feedback. We discuss the implications of these results in the general context of the fate of stripped gas in hostile cluster environments.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports ALMA 12CO(1-0) observations of 42 star-forming regions in the HI gas tail of NGC 4254, detecting ten resolved giant molecular clouds (GMCs) in four regions. These have molecular masses M(H2) ~ (0.8-2.0)×10^6 M⊙, column densities Σ(H2) ~ 10 M⊙ pc^{-2}, and velocity dispersions σ_v(CO) ~ 3-12 km s^{-1}. The clouds follow the Schmidt law established for the stellar disc of NGC 4254 and other galaxies. Analytic calculations combined with tuned simulations indicate the GMCs are gravitationally unstable and expected to dissolve on 10-30 Myr timescales. The authors conclude the clouds formed via collapse of dense gas in the tidally stripped HI tail from an interaction several hundred Myr ago, and that the diffuse intracluster medium cannot confine feedback-driven gas, rendering the clouds short-lived and isolated.

Significance. If the instability analysis and no-confinement conclusion hold, the work provides direct observational evidence for in-situ GMC formation and short-lived star formation within tidally stripped gas in cluster environments. This bears on the efficiency and fate of stripped gas, the role of the ICM in regulating cloud evolution, and broader questions of gas recycling in clusters. The reported consistency of GMC properties and Schmidt-law adherence with disc populations supplies independent support for the formation scenario and strengthens the result beyond the modeling alone.

major comments (1)
  1. [analytic calculations and tuned simulations] The section on analytic calculations and tuned simulations: the central claim that the observed GMCs dissolve on 10-30 Myr timescales rests on these calculations. The manuscript must specify the simulation code, grid resolution, initial conditions, feedback implementation, and the precise tuning procedure used to reproduce the observed masses, column densities, and dispersions; without these details the robustness of the timescale against reasonable variations in parameters cannot be assessed.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the notation contains typographical errors, including an extraneous closing brace in "M(H2)~(0.8-2.0)x10^6} Mo" and the use of square brackets and non-standard symbols for column density [S(H2)~10 Mo pc^-2]; these should be corrected to standard Σ(H2) ~ 10 M⊙ pc^{-2}.
  2. The manuscript should include a table listing individual GMC properties (positions, masses, sizes, dispersions, star-formation rates) with uncertainties to allow quantitative comparison with Milky Way and disc samples.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive report and recommendation. We address the single major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [analytic calculations and tuned simulations] The section on analytic calculations and tuned simulations: the central claim that the observed GMCs dissolve on 10-30 Myr timescales rests on these calculations. The manuscript must specify the simulation code, grid resolution, initial conditions, feedback implementation, and the precise tuning procedure used to reproduce the observed masses, column densities, and dispersions; without these details the robustness of the timescale against reasonable variations in parameters cannot be assessed.

    Authors: We agree that the current manuscript does not provide sufficient detail on the simulations to allow independent assessment of the robustness of the 10-30 Myr dissolution timescale. In the revised manuscript we will expand the relevant section to specify the simulation code, grid resolution, initial conditions, feedback implementation, and the precise tuning procedure used to match the observed GMC masses, column densities, and velocity dispersions. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity

full rationale

The derivation rests on direct ALMA 12CO(1-0) detections of ten resolved GMCs (masses, column densities, dispersions) plus separate analytic calculations and tuned simulations for gravitational instability and 10-30 Myr dissolution timescales. These modeling steps are presented as independent of the observational inputs; the Schmidt-law match to disc populations supplies an external consistency check. No self-definitional relations, fitted parameters renamed as predictions, or load-bearing self-citation chains appear in the provided text. The result is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Assessment limited to abstract only; full details on simulation tuning and any additional assumptions not available.

free parameters (1)
  • tuned simulation parameters
    The paper states that simulations are tuned, implying parameters were adjusted to reproduce the observed cloud properties and timescales.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption The Schmidt law relation derived from stellar disk data also applies to the tail regions
    The abstract states that the clouds follow the relation derived using similar data over the stellar disc of NGC 4254 and other galaxies.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5977 in / 1305 out tokens · 28338 ms · 2026-06-26T16:53:12.331378+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

133 extracted references

  1. [1]

    C.\ 2006, Advances in Space Research, 38, 2989

    Agrawal, P. C.\ 2006, Advances in Space Research, 38, 2989

    2006

  2. [2]

    Beuther, H., Wang, Y., Soler, J., et al.\ 2020, , 638, A44

    2020

  3. [3]

    G., Zhang, Z.-Y., Kyrmanidou, M.-C., et al.\ 2025, , 697, A115

    Bisbas, T. G., Zhang, Z.-Y., Kyrmanidou, M.-C., et al.\ 2025, , 697, A115

    2025

  4. [4]

    P., Jord \'a n, A., Mei, S., et al.\ 2009, , 694, 556

    Blakeslee, J. P., Jord \'a n, A., Mei, S., et al.\ 2009, , 694, 556

    2009

  5. [5]

    & Rosolowsky, E.\ 2006, , 650, 933

    Blitz, L. & Rosolowsky, E.\ 2006, , 650, 933

    2006

  6. [6]

    Boissier, S., Boselli, A., Duc, P.-A., et al.\ 2012, , 545, A142

    2012

  7. [7]

    D., Leroy, A

    Bolatto, A. D., Leroy, A. K., Jameson, K., et al.\ 2011, , 741, 12

    2011

  8. [8]

    D., Wolfire, M., & Leroy, A

    Bolatto, A. D., Wolfire, M., & Leroy, A. K.\ 2013, , 51, 207

    2013

  9. [9]

    Boselli, A., & Gavazzi, G.\ 2006, , 118, 517

    2006

  10. [10]

    Boselli, A., Lequeux, J., & Gavazzi, G.\ 2002, , 384, 33

    2002

  11. [11]

    Boselli, A., Boissier, S., Heinis, S., et al.\ 2011, , 528, A107

    2011

  12. [12]

    Boselli, A., Cortese, L., & Boquien, M.\ 2014b, , 564, A65

  13. [13]

    Boselli, A., Cortese, L., Boquien, M., et al.\ 2014a, , 564, A66

  14. [14]

    C., Fossati, M., et al.\ 2016, , 587, A68

    Boselli, A., Cuillandre, J. C., Fossati, M., et al.\ 2016, , 587, A68

    2016

  15. [15]

    Boselli, A., Fossati, M., Ferrarese, L., et al.\ 2018a, , 614, A56

  16. [16]

    C., et al.\ 2018b, , 615, A114

    Boselli, A., Fossati, M., Cuillandre, J. C., et al.\ 2018b, , 615, A114

  17. [17]

    Boselli, A., Lupi, A., Epinat, B., et al.\ 2021, , 646, A139

    2021

  18. [18]

    Boselli, A., Fossati, M., & Sun, M.\ 2022, , 30, 3

    2022

  19. [19]

    Boselli, A., Fossati, M., Roediger, J., et al.\ 2023, , 669, A73

    2023

  20. [20]

    Boselli, A., Fossati, M., Roehlly, Y., et al.\ 2025, , 696, A78

    2025

  21. [21]

    Braine, J., Rosolowsky, E., Gratier, P., et al.\ 2018, , 612, A51

    2018

  22. [22]

    Braine, J., Sun, Y., Shimajiri, Y., et al.\ 2023, , 676, A27

    2023

  23. [23]

    D., Zabel, N., et al.\ 2021, , 257, 21

    Brown, T., Wilson, C. D., Zabel, N., et al.\ 2021, , 257, 21

    2021

  24. [24]

    D., Thorp, M., et al.\ 2023, , 956, 37

    Brown, T., Roberts, I. D., Thorp, M., et al.\ 2023, , 956, 37

    2023

  25. [25]

    Burkert, A.\ 2017, , 88, 533

    2017

  26. [26]

    Burkhart, B., & Loeb, A.\ 2016, , 824, L7

    2016

  27. [27]

    G., Romano D., D'Ercole A., 2015, ApJL, 814, L14

    Calura F., Few C. G., Romano D., D'Ercole A., 2015, ApJL, 814, L14

    2015

  28. [28]

    Calura F., Bellazzini M., D'Ercole A., 2020, MNRAS, 499, 5873

    2020

  29. [29]

    Calura, F., Lupi, A., Rosdahl, J., et al.\ 2022, , 516, 4, 5914

    2022

  30. [30]

    Calura, F., Pascale, R., Agertz, O., et al.\ 2025, , 698, A207

    2025

  31. [31]

    Calzetti, D., Wu, S.-Y., Hong, S., et al.\ 2010, , 714, 1256

    2010

  32. [32]

    P., Ferrarese, L., et al.\ 2018, , 856, 126

    Cantiello, M., Blakeslee, J. P., Ferrarese, L., et al.\ 2018, , 856, 126

    2018

  33. [33]

    P., Ferrarese, L., et al.\ 2024, , 966, 145

    Cantiello, M., Blakeslee, J. P., Ferrarese, L., et al.\ 2024, , 966, 145

    2024

  34. [34]

    H., Balkowski, C., & Kotanyi, C.\ 1990, , 100, 604

    Cayatte, V., van Gorkom, J. H., Balkowski, C., & Kotanyi, C.\ 1990, , 100, 604

    1990

  35. [35]

    Chabrier, G.\ 2003, , 115, 763

    2003

  36. [36]

    H., Kenney, J

    Chung, A., van Gorkom, J. H., Kenney, J. D. P., et al., 2009, , 138, 1741

    2009

  37. [37]

    Cortese, L., Catinella, B., & Smith, R.\ 2021, , 38, e035

    2021

  38. [38]

    J., Kenney, J

    Cramer, W. J., Kenney, J. D. P., Sun, M., et al.\ 2019, , 870, 63

    2019

  39. [39]

    W., Boselli, A., et al.\ 2025, , 693, A189

    de Gasperin, F., Edler, H. W., Boselli, A., et al.\ 2025, , 693, A189

    2025

  40. [40]

    L., Glover, S

    Dobbs, C. L., Glover, S. C. O., Clark, P. C., et al.\ 2008, , 389, 3, 1097

    2008

  41. [41]

    & Bournaud, F.\ 2008, , 673, 787

    Duc, P.-A. & Bournaud, F.\ 2008, , 673, 787

    2008

  42. [42]

    Emsellem, E., Schinnerer, E., Santoro, F., et al.\ 2022, , 659, A191

    2022

  43. [43]

    Ferrarese, L., C \^o t \'e , P., Cuillandre, J.-C., et al.\ 2012, , 200, 4

    2012

  44. [44]

    Fossati, M., Fumagalli, M., Boselli, A., et al.\ 2016, , 455, 2028

    2016

  45. [45]

    R., Prochaska, J

    Fumagalli, M., Krumholz, M. R., Prochaska, J. X., et al.\ 2009, , 697, 1811

    2009

  46. [46]

    Fumagalli, M., Gavazzi, G., Scaramella, R., et al., 2011b, , 528, A46

  47. [47]

    Gavazzi, G., Boselli, A., Scodeggio, M., et al., 1999, , 304, 595

    1999

  48. [48]

    Gavazzi, G., Boselli, A., Mayer, L., et al.\ 2001, , 563, L23

    2001

  49. [49]

    Gavazzi, G., Boselli, A., van Driel, W., & O'Neil, K.\ 2005, , 429, 439

    2005

  50. [50]

    P., Kent, B

    Giovanelli, R., Haynes, M. P., Kent, B. R., et al.\ 2007, , 133, 6, 2569

    2007

  51. [51]

    J., Krumholz, M

    Goldbaum, N. J., Krumholz, M. R., Matzner, C. D., et al.\ 2011, , 738, 101

    2011

  52. [52]

    P., Ji, S., et al.\ 2022, , 511, 859

    Gronke, M., Oh, S. P., Ji, S., et al.\ 2022, , 511, 859

    2022

  53. [53]

    Groves, B., Kreckel, K., Santoro, F., et al.\ 2023, , 520, 4902

    2023

  54. [54]

    Haynes, M. P. & Giovanelli, R.\ 1984, , 89, 758

    1984

  55. [55]

    P., Giovanelli, R., & Kent, B

    Haynes, M. P., Giovanelli, R., & Kent, B. R.\ 2007, , 665, L19

    2007

  56. [56]

    A., Seibert, M., Neill, J

    Hester, J. A., Seibert, M., Neill, J. D., et al.\ 2010, , 716, L14

    2010

  57. [57]

    & Salpeter, E

    Hollenbach, D. & Salpeter, E. E.\ 1971, , 163, 155

    1971

  58. [58]

    Hichiro ., Inoue, T., Iwasaki, K., et al.\ 2015, , 580, A49

    Inutsuka, S. Hichiro ., Inoue, T., Iwasaki, K., et al.\ 2015, , 580, A49

    2015

  59. [59]

    J \'a chym, P., Kenney, J. D. P., R z ui c ka, A., et al.\ 2013, , 556, A99

    2013

  60. [60]

    J \'a chym, P., Combes, F., Cortese, L., et al., 2014, , 792, 11

    2014

  61. [61]

    J \'a chym, P., Sun, M., Kenney, J. D. P., et al.\ 2017, , 839, 114

    2017

  62. [62]

    J \'a chym, P., Kenney, J. D. P., Sun, M., et al.\ 2019, , 883, 145

    2019

  63. [63]

    J \'a chym, P., Sun, M., Yagi, M., et al.\ 2022, , 658, L5

    2022

  64. [64]

    H., Comrie, A., Marchetti, L., et al., 2021, Astro & Comp, 37, 100502

    Jarrett, T. H., Comrie, A., Marchetti, L., et al., 2021, Astro & Comp, 37, 100502

    2021

  65. [65]

    R.\ 2024, , 527, 3, 7093

    Jeffreson, S., Semenov, V., & Krumholz, M. R.\ 2024, , 527, 3, 7093

    2024

  66. [66]

    J., Brown, T., Wilson, C

    Jim \'e nez-Donaire, M. J., Brown, T., Wilson, C. D., et al.\ 2023, , 671, A3

    2023

  67. [67]

    J., Wolfire, M

    Kaufman, M. J., Wolfire, M. G., Hollenbach, D. J., et al., 1999, , 527, 795

    1999

  68. [68]

    Kenney, J. D. P., Geha, M., J \'a chym, P., et al.\ 2014, , 780, 119

    2014

  69. [69]

    Kobayashi, M. I. N., Inutsuka, S. Ichiro, et al.\ 2017, , 836, 175

    2017

  70. [70]

    K \"o rtgen, B., Federrath, C., & Banerjee, R.\ 2017, , 472, 2, 2496

    2017

  71. [71]

    Kronberger, T., Kapferer, W., Ferrari, C., et al.\ 2008, , 481, 337

    2008

  72. [72]

    Kroupa P., 2001, , 322, 231

    2001

  73. [73]

    Lada, C. J. & Dame, T. M.\ 2020, , 898, 3

    2020

  74. [74]

    J., Forbrich, J., Lombardi, M., et al.\ 2012, , 745, 190

    Lada, C. J., Forbrich, J., Lombardi, M., et al.\ 2012, , 745, 190

    2012

  75. [75]

    H., et al., 2020, , 891, 2

    Lah \'e n N., Naab T., Johansson P. H., et al., 2020, , 891, 2

    2020

  76. [76]

    B.\ 1981, , 194, 809

    Larson, R. B.\ 1981, , 194, 809

    1981

  77. [77]

    K., Walter, F., Brinks, E., et al.\ 2008, , 136, 2782

    Leroy, A. K., Walter, F., Brinks, E., et al.\ 2008, , 136, 2782

    2008

  78. [78]

    K., Walter, F., Bigiel, F., et al.\ 2009, , 137, 4670

    Leroy, A. K., Walter, F., Bigiel, F., et al.\ 2009, , 137, 4670

    2009

  79. [79]

    K., Schinnerer, E., Hughes, A., et al.\ 2021, , 257, 43

    Leroy, A. K., Schinnerer, E., Hughes, A., et al.\ 2021, , 257, 43

    2021

  80. [80]

    K., Rosolowsky, E., Usero, A., et al.\ 2022, , 927, 149

    Leroy, A. K., Rosolowsky, E., Usero, A., et al.\ 2022, , 927, 149

    2022

Showing first 80 references.