pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.32011 · v1 · pith:WUC57GXDnew · submitted 2026-06-30 · 💰 econ.GN · q-fin.EC

Competition and Anomalies Redux: Evidence from U.S. Auto Dealers

David Huffman , Lamar Pierce , Germ\'an Reyes , Alex Rees-Jones This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-07-01 01:57 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💰 econ.GN q-fin.EC
keywords competitionmistakesanomaliesauto dealersbonus contractsmarket disciplinebehavioral change
0
0 comments X

The pith

Greater competition lowers the rate at which auto dealers select non-profit-maximizing bonus contracts, though mistakes persist even in competitive markets.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper studies dealers of a U.S. auto manufacturer who choose between two bonus contracts and select the lower-profit option in 20 percent of cases, at an average annual cost of $18,453. Both cross-sectional comparisons across markets and within-dealer changes over time show that higher competition reduces these mistakes substantially. Mistakes remain in even the most competitive settings. The results indicate that competition reduces anomalies mainly by changing behavior inside existing dealers rather than by entry of better dealers or exit of worse ones.

Core claim

Dealers select the non-profit-maximizing bonus contract in 20 percent of observations. Greater competition lowers the mistake rate in both cross-sectional and within-dealer analyses, but consequential mistakes persist in competitive markets. Competition disciplines primarily through within-dealer behavioral changes rather than entry and exit.

What carries the argument

Classification of contract choices as mistakes, identified by comparing observed selections to the profit-maximizing option from manufacturer data, and its relation to market competition levels.

If this is right

  • Higher competition reduces the frequency of costly contract mistakes by dealers.
  • Mistakes remain even under the strongest competition.
  • Competition reduces mistakes mainly by changing the behavior of existing dealers.
  • Entry and exit of dealers contribute less to lowering the mistake rate.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Policies that increase rivalry could improve contract choices in other settings by prompting internal adjustments rather than relying on firm turnover.
  • Limits to how far competition can correct decision errors may appear in other agent-principal relationships involving incentive contracts.
  • Testing whether within-firm behavioral shifts explain competition effects in non-auto industries would extend the pattern observed here.

Load-bearing premise

The manufacturer's data identifies the true profit-maximizing contract without unmeasured costs or constraints that would make the observed choice optimal for the dealer.

What would settle it

Reclassifying the same choices with additional dealer-specific cost data and finding no mistakes or no competition effect on correctly measured mistakes would falsify the claim that competition reduces errors.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.32011 by Alex Rees-Jones, David Huffman, Germ\'an Reyes, Lamar Pierce.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The Incentive Contract and Tier Choice Panel A. Bonus per Vehicle by Sales Attainment Tier 1 (high bonus) Tier 2 (low bonus) $0 $50 $100 $150 $200 $350 $400 $500 $600 Bonus per vehicle 95% 100% 106% 120% Sales as a percent of monthly sales goal Panel B. Annual Profit for a Median-Size Dealer Tier 1 Tier 2 0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 Annual profit from the contract ($) 300 400 500 600 700 800 Annual v… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Enrollment in Incentive Contracts and Dealership Size [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Distribution of Realized Versus Counterfactual Profits [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Contract Choice and Financial Stakes 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 Fraction of dealers choosing high tier -20k 0 100k 200k ≥300k (High-bonus tier profit) minus (low-bonus tier profit) Observed choices No ex-post mistakes Notes: This figure shows the relationship between tier selection and profit differential. The figure displays a binned scatterplot (40 equal-sized bins) of high-bonus tier enrollment rates… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Market Concentration and Ex-Post Suboptimal Choices [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p027_5.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We examine a choice between bonus contracts offered to dealers of a U.S. auto manufacturer. In our data, dealers select the non-profit-maximizing option in 20 percent of observations, costing the mistaken dealers $18,453 per year on average. We examine how the propensity to make this mistake varies with competition, identified both cross-sectionally and within dealers over time. Both analyses show that greater competition substantially lowers the rate of mistakes. However, even in the most competitive markets, consequential mistakes persist. Our results suggest that competition disciplines mainly through within-dealer changes in behavior rather than entry and exit.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The paper examines dealers' choices between bonus contracts offered by a U.S. auto manufacturer. It reports that the non-profit-maximizing option is selected in 20% of observations, at an average annual cost of $18,453 to the dealer. Using both cross-sectional variation in competition and within-dealer changes over time, the authors find that greater competition substantially reduces the rate of these mistakes, though mistakes persist even in the most competitive markets. The results indicate that competition disciplines dealer behavior primarily through within-dealer adjustments rather than entry and exit.

Significance. If the classification of contract choices as mistakes is robust, the paper provides evidence on how competition affects the prevalence of suboptimal firm decisions, contributing to industrial organization and behavioral economics literatures. The dual identification approach (cross-section and panel) strengthens the analysis if the core measure holds.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The central claim that dealers make mistakes (non-profit-maximizing choices) in 20% of cases, and that competition reduces this rate, rests on identifying the profit-maximizing contract solely from the manufacturer's contract and payment data. If dealers face unmeasured time-varying costs or constraints (e.g., inventory holding costs, local demand shocks, financing constraints, or risk preferences), the observed choice may be privately optimal. The within-dealer fixed-effects specification removes only time-invariant heterogeneity and does not address time-varying unobservables that could reclassify choices or confound the competition effect. This assumption is load-bearing for interpreting the results as evidence on anomalies and competition.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the detailed and constructive report. The primary concern raised is addressed point-by-point below. We agree that the classification of mistakes is central to the paper's interpretation and will incorporate additional discussion and caveats in the revision.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The central claim that dealers make mistakes (non-profit-maximizing choices) in 20% of cases, and that competition reduces this rate, rests on identifying the profit-maximizing contract solely from the manufacturer's contract and payment data. If dealers face unmeasured time-varying costs or constraints (e.g., inventory holding costs, local demand shocks, financing constraints, or risk preferences), the observed choice may be privately optimal. The within-dealer fixed-effects specification removes only time-invariant heterogeneity and does not address time-varying unobservables that could reclassify choices or confound the competition effect. This assumption is load-bearing for interpreting the results as evidence on anomalies and competition.

    Authors: We acknowledge that identifying choices as mistakes requires assuming that the manufacturer's payment data fully captures the relevant profit differences without substantial time-varying unobservables. The two bonus contracts apply to identical vehicles and sales targets, making it unlikely that inventory, demand, or financing costs differ materially between options; any such factors would affect both contracts similarly. The within-dealer specification exploits changes in competition over time for the same dealer, which helps isolate behavioral responses. That said, we cannot fully eliminate the possibility of time-varying confounders with the current data. In the revision we will add an explicit subsection on this assumption, including institutional details supporting the classification and a discussion of limitations. We will also report sensitivity checks under alternative risk-preference assumptions. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: empirical analysis of observed contract choices

full rationale

The paper is a purely empirical study that classifies observed dealer contract selections as mistakes when they deviate from the profit-maximizing option computed directly from manufacturer payment data, then regresses mistake rates on competition measures (cross-sectional and within-dealer). No equations, fitted parameters renamed as predictions, self-citations, or ansatzes are present in the provided text. The mistake classification rests on a substantive (and debatable) assumption about observability of all costs, but this is not a self-referential definition or reduction of the result to its inputs by construction. The central claim therefore remains independent of any circular step.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Review based on abstract only; no explicit free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are stated in the provided text.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Observed contract choices can be classified as mistakes relative to a profit-maximizing benchmark identifiable from manufacturer data.
    This classification underpins the entire measurement of mistake rates and their relation to competition.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5630 in / 1136 out tokens · 38760 ms · 2026-07-01T01:57:19.636162+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

112 extracted references · 6 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    The Review of Economic Studies , volume =

    Anagol, Santosh and Balasubramaniam, Vimal and Ramadorai, Tarun , title =. The Review of Economic Studies , volume =. 2018 , month =. doi:10.1093/restud/rdy014 , url =

    work page doi:10.1093/restud/rdy014 2018

  2. [2]

    and Azevedo, Eduardo M

    Apicella, Coren L. and Azevedo, Eduardo M. and Christakis, Nicholas A. and Fowler, James H. , Title =. American Economic Review , Volume =. 2014 , Month =. doi:10.1257/aer.104.6.1793 , URL =

    work page doi:10.1257/aer.104.6.1793 2014

  3. [3]

    , title =

    Feng, Lei and Seasholes, Mark S. , title =. Review of Finance , volume =. 2005 , month =. doi:10.1007/s10679-005-2262-0 , url =

    work page doi:10.1007/s10679-005-2262-0 2005

  4. [4]

    Up Close and Personal: Investor Sophistication and the Disposition Effect , urldate =

    Ravi Dhar and Ning Zhu , journal =. Up Close and Personal: Investor Sophistication and the Disposition Effect , urldate =

  5. [5]

    Humphrey and Chris Starmer , keywords =

    Jacinto Braga and Steven J. Humphrey and Chris Starmer , keywords =. Market experience eliminates some anomalies—and creates new ones , journal =. 2009 , issn =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2008.06.005 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2008.06.005 2009

  6. [6]

    Management Science , volume=

    Building a productive workforce: The role of structured management practices , author=. Management Science , volume=. 2021 , publisher=

    2021

  7. [7]

    Sanctioning in the Wild: Rational Calculus and Retributive Instincts in Gourmet Cuisine , journal =

    Giada. Sanctioning in the Wild: Rational Calculus and Retributive Instincts in Gourmet Cuisine , journal =. 2015 , volume =

    2015

  8. [8]

    2018 , type =

    Sara Fisher Ellison and Christopher Snyder and Hongkai Zhang , title =. 2018 , type =

    2018

  9. [9]

    Journal of Economic Perspectives , year =

    Ulrike Malmendier and Geoffrey Tate , title =. Journal of Economic Perspectives , year =

  10. [10]

    Strategic Management Journal , year =

    William Ocasio , title =. Strategic Management Journal , year =

  11. [11]

    American Economic Review , year =

    Dessein, Wouter and Galeotti, Andrea and Santos, Tano , title =. American Economic Review , year =

  12. [12]

    American Economic Journal: Microeconomics , year =

    Dessein, Wouter and Santos, Tano , title =. American Economic Journal: Microeconomics , year =

  13. [13]

    The Quarterly Journal of Economics , year =

    Nicholas Bloom and John Van Reenen , title =. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , year =

  14. [14]

    2019 , note =

    Hyunjin Kim , title =. 2019 , note =

    2019

  15. [15]

    The Quarterly Journal of Economics , year =

    Stefano DellaVigna and Matthew Gentzkow , title =. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , year =

  16. [16]

    Journal of Political Economy , year =

    Chad Syverson , title =. Journal of Political Economy , year =

  17. [17]

    Behavioral Contract Theory , journal =

    Botond K. Behavioral Contract Theory , journal =. 2014 , volume =

    2014

  18. [18]

    List , title =

    John A. List , title =. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , year =

  19. [19]

    List , title =

    John A. List , title =. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , year =

  20. [20]

    List , title =

    John A. List , title =. Econometrica , year =

  21. [21]

    List , title =

    John A. List , title =. Journal of Political Economy , year =

  22. [22]

    List , title =

    John A. List , title =. American Economic Review , year =

  23. [23]

    Journal of Econometrics , volume=

    Difference-in-differences with multiple time periods , author=. Journal of Econometrics , volume=. 2021 , publisher=

    2021

  24. [24]

    The Econometrics Journal , volume=

    Two-way fixed effects and differences-in-differences with heterogeneous treatment effects: A survey , author=. The Econometrics Journal , volume=. 2023 , publisher=

    2023

  25. [25]

    ``X-efficiency'' , author=

    Allocative efficiency vs. ``X-efficiency'' , author=. The American Economic Review , volume=. 1966 , publisher=

    1966

  26. [26]

    Dealers Fear Losing Control as Factory Incentives Burgeon , year =

  27. [27]

    Journal of Political Economy , volume=

    Agency problems and the theory of the firm , author=. Journal of Political Economy , volume=. 1980 , publisher=

    1980

  28. [28]

    Journal of Financial Economics , volume =

    Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure , author =. Journal of Financial Economics , volume =. 1976 , publisher =. doi:10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/0304-405x(76)90026-x 1976

  29. [29]

    The Bell journal of economics , pages=

    Moral hazard and observability , author=. The Bell journal of economics , pages=. 1979 , publisher=

    1979

  30. [30]

    2004 , publisher=

    Contract theory , author=. 2004 , publisher=

    2004

  31. [31]

    Review of Economics and statistics , volume=

    \ 100 bills on the sidewalk: Suboptimal investment in 401(k) plans , author=. Review of Economics and statistics , volume=. 2011 , publisher=

    2011

  32. [32]

    The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=

    Choose to lose: Health plan choices from a menu with dominated option , author=. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=. 2017 , publisher=

    2017

  33. [33]

    The RAND Journal of Economics , pages=

    Dealer and manufacturer margins , author=. The RAND Journal of Economics , pages=. 1985 , publisher=

    1985

  34. [34]

    The Bell Journal of Economics , pages=

    The market mechanism as an incentive scheme , author=. The Bell Journal of Economics , pages=. 1983 , publisher=

    1983

  35. [35]

    Journal of Economic Literature , year =

    DellaVigna, Stefano , title =. Journal of Economic Literature , year =

  36. [36]

    and Schweitzer, Maurice E

    Pope, Devin G. and Schweitzer, Maurice E. , title =. American Economic Review , year =

  37. [37]

    and Baltussen, Guido and Thaler, Richard H

    Post, Thierry and Van den Assem, Martijn J. and Baltussen, Guido and Thaler, Richard H. , title =. American Economic Review , year =

  38. [38]

    The Review of Economics and Statistics , year =

    Enke, Benjamin and Gneezy, Uri and Hall, Brian and Martin, David and Nelidov, Vadim and Offerman, Theo and van de Ven, Jeroen , title =. The Review of Economics and Statistics , year =

  39. [39]

    and Hogarth, Robin M

    Camerer, Colin F. and Hogarth, Robin M. , title =. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty , year =

  40. [40]

    and Shumway, Tyler , title =

    Coval, Joshua D. and Shumway, Tyler , title =. Journal of Finance , year =

  41. [41]

    and Mann, Steven C

    Locke, Peter R. and Mann, Steven C. , title =. Journal of Financial Economics , year =

  42. [42]

    and List, John A

    Haigh, Michael S. and List, John A. , title =. Journal of Finance , year =

  43. [43]

    , title =

    Nickell, Stephen J. , title =. Journal of Political Economy , year =

  44. [44]

    , title =

    Schmidt, Klaus M. , title =. The Review of Economic Studies , year =

  45. [45]

    , title =

    Alchian, Armen A. , title =. Journal of Political Economy , year =

  46. [46]

    Essays in Positive Economics , publisher =

    Friedman, Milton , title =. Essays in Positive Economics , publisher =. 1953 , pages =

    1953

  47. [47]

    , title =

    Becker, Gary S. , title =. Journal of Political Economy , year =

  48. [48]

    Econometrica , volume=

    Why is productivity correlated with competition? , author=. Econometrica , volume=. 2020 , publisher=

    2020

  49. [49]

    The rand journal of economics , pages=

    Agency theory and franchising: some empirical results , author=. The rand journal of economics , pages=. 1992 , publisher=

    1992

  50. [50]

    Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 , editor=

    Behavioral Industrial Organization , author=. Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 , editor=. 2018 , publisher=

    2018

  51. [51]

    Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 , volume=

    Behavioral development economics , author=. Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 , volume=. 2019 , publisher=

    2019

  52. [52]

    The Review of Financial Studies , volume=

    Financial contracting with optimistic entrepreneurs , author=. The Review of Financial Studies , volume=. 2008 , publisher=

    2008

  53. [53]

    American Economic Review , volume=

    Overconfidence and Excess Entry: An Experimental Approach , author=. American Economic Review , volume=

  54. [54]

    Journal of Business Venturing , volume=

    Entrepreneurs' Perceived Chances for Success , author=. Journal of Business Venturing , volume=

  55. [55]

    American Economic Review , volume=

    Persistent Overconfidence and Biased Memory: Evidence from Managers , author=. American Economic Review , volume=. 2022 , publisher=

    2022

  56. [56]

    Mimeo , year=

    Transitory Shocks, Limited Attention, and a Firm's Decision to Exit , author=. Mimeo , year=

  57. [57]

    American Economic Journal: Economic Policy , volume=

    The Negative Consequences of Loss-Framed Performance Incentives , author=. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy , volume=. 2025 , publisher=

    2025

  58. [58]

    Review of Economic Studies , volume=

    More than a penny's worth: Left-digit bias and firm pricing , author=. Review of Economic Studies , volume=. 2023 , publisher=

    2023

  59. [59]

    The Review of Economic Studies , year =

    Left-Digit Bias at Lyft , author =. The Review of Economic Studies , year =. doi:10.1093/restud/rdad014 , publisher =

    work page doi:10.1093/restud/rdad014

  60. [60]

    2026 , note=

    Minds, Models and Markets: How Managerial Cognition Affects Pricing Strategies , author=. 2026 , note=

    2026

  61. [61]

    The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=

    Does management matter? Evidence from India , author=. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=. 2013 , publisher=

    2013

  62. [62]

    The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=

    Learning through noticing: Theory and evidence from a field experiment , author=. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , volume=. 2014 , publisher=

    2014

  63. [63]

    Review of Economics and Statistics , pages=

    Strategic or confused firms? Evidence from ``missing'' transactions in Uganda , author=. Review of Economics and Statistics , pages=. 2022 , publisher=

    2022

  64. [64]

    American Economic Review , volume=

    Monopsony and Employer Mis-optimization Explain Why Wages Bunch at Round Numbers , author=. American Economic Review , volume=. 2025 , publisher=

    2025

  65. [65]

    Review of Economics and Statistics , year=

    Coarse Wage-Setting and Behavioral Firms , author=. Review of Economics and Statistics , year=

  66. [66]

    Econometrica , volume=

    Reconsidering the Effect of Market Experience on the ``Endowment Effect'' , author=. Econometrica , volume=. 2010 , publisher=

    2010

  67. [67]

    , title =

    Simon, Herbert A. , title =

  68. [68]

    Alchian, A. A. (1950). Uncertainty, evolution, and economic theory. Journal of Political Economy , 58(3):211--221

    1950

  69. [69]

    Almunia, M., Hjort, J., Knebelmann, J., and Tian, L. (2022). Strategic or confused firms? evidence from ``missing'' transactions in uganda. Review of Economics and Statistics , pages 1--35

    2022

  70. [70]

    Anagol, S., Balasubramaniam, V., and Ramadorai, T. (2018). Endowment effects in the field: Evidence from india’s ipo lotteries. The Review of Economic Studies , 85(4):1971--2004

    2018

  71. [71]

    L., Azevedo, E

    Apicella, C. L., Azevedo, E. M., Christakis, N. A., and Fowler, J. H. (2014). Evolutionary origins of the endowment effect: Evidence from hunter-gatherers. American Economic Review , 104(6):1793–1805

    2014

  72. [72]

    Backus, M. (2020). Why is productivity correlated with competition? Econometrica , 88(6):2415--2444

    2020

  73. [73]

    Becker, G. S. (1962). Irrational behavior and economic theory. Journal of Political Economy , 70(1):1--13

    1962

  74. [74]

    and Dewatripont, M

    Bolton, P. and Dewatripont, M. (2004). Contract theory . MIT press

    2004

  75. [75]

    J., and Starmer, C

    Braga, J., Humphrey, S. J., and Starmer, C. (2009). Market experience eliminates some anomalies—and creates new ones. European Economic Review , 53(4):401--416

    2009

  76. [76]

    Coval, J. D. and Shumway, T. (2005). Do behavioral biases affect prices? Journal of Finance , 60(1):1--34

    2005

  77. [77]

    DellaVigna, S. (2009). Psychology and economics: Evidence from the field. Journal of Economic Literature , 47(2):315--372

    2009

  78. [78]

    Dessein, W., Galeotti, A., and Santos, T. (2016). Rational inattention and organizational focus. American Economic Review , 106(6):1522--1536

    2016

  79. [79]

    and Santos, T

    Dessein, W. and Santos, T. (2021). Managerial style and attention. American Economic Journal: Microeconomics , 13(3):372--403

    2021

  80. [80]

    and Zhu, N

    Dhar, R. and Zhu, N. (2006). Up close and personal: Investor sophistication and the disposition effect. Management Science , 52(5):726--740

    2006

Showing first 80 references.