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arxiv: 2606.02445 · v1 · pith:GQOW6GKDnew · submitted 2026-06-01 · ⚛️ physics.space-ph · astro-ph.SR

Counterintuitive Magnetic Connectivity and Energetic Particle Flux Differences among Nearby Spacecraft During the 2023 February 24 Solar Energetic Particle Event

Weihao Liu , Xianyu Liu , David Lario , Lulu Zhao , Tamas I. Gombosi , Alexander D. Shane , Igor V. Sokolov This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-28 11:21 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.space-ph astro-ph.SR
keywords solar energetic particlesCME shocksmagnetic connectivityparticle accelerationspace weatherheliospheric observations
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0 comments X

The pith

Magnetic connections to different parts of a distorted CME shock explain why Solar Orbiter saw much higher SEP fluxes than Earth and STA in the 2023 February 24 event.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines a solar energetic particle event where spacecraft close in space showed large differences in particle fluxes, contrary to the expectation that better-connected observers see higher intensities. It shows that the CME-driven shock became inhomogeneous, with a stronger nose and weaker flanks, due to its origin near a coronal streamer. A stream interaction region caused the magnetic footpoints of the spacecraft to be separated by more than their actual positions, leading Solar Orbiter to connect to the efficient acceleration region at the shock nose while the others connected to weaker areas. Simulations using AWSoM-R for the MHD and M-FLAMPA for particles reproduce the observations, indicating that shock structure and connectivity details dominate over simple radial or angular expectations.

Core claim

The counterintuitive higher fluxes at Solar Orbiter result from its magnetic connection to the nose of the CME-driven shock, which has a higher compression ratio and more efficient particle acceleration, whereas Earth and STA connect to the weaker flank regions of the same distorted shock, even though the spacecraft are separated by less than 30 degrees in longitude.

What carries the argument

The inhomogeneous CME-driven shock with varying compression ratios across its nose and flanks, combined with magnetic footpoint mapping altered by a nearby stream interaction region.

Load-bearing premise

The global MHD simulation and particle transport model correctly reproduce the actual magnetic field connections and the shock's compression ratios at the times and locations of the spacecraft.

What would settle it

Direct measurements or independent modeling showing that the shock compression ratio at Solar Orbiter's connected region was not higher than at the others, or that the flux differences persist even with uniform connectivity.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.02445 by Alexander D. Shane, David Lario, Igor V. Sokolov, Lulu Zhao, Tamas I. Gombosi, Weihao Liu, Xianyu Liu.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Observational overview of the 2023 February 24 SEP event. (a) Carrington-longitude configura￾tion of Earth/L1 (green circle), STA (red circle), and SolO (blue circle). Curves in the corresponding colors show the nominal IMF lines estimated from local solar wind speeds, and the black arrow indicates the CME propagation direction. (b) GONG synoptic map of the photospheric radial magnetic field (Br) at 19:04 … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Simulated background solar wind. (a) Ambient solar wind speed (Usw) and (b) density scaled by the heliocentric distance (r 2Np) in the solar equatorial plane with Carrington heliographic (HGC) coordinates used. White curves with arrows represent magnetic field lines, colored curves show the field lines connected to Earth (green), STA (red), and SolO (blue), and the black curve marks the HCS. The gray dashe… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Steady-state coronal structure from the STA viewpoint. (a) Pre-event STA/COR2 WL observa￾tion, at 20:23 UT on 2023 February 24, with five main streamer structures labeled S1–S5 clockwise from the north. (b) Corresponding WL image synthesized from the AWSoM-R modeled background solar wind. The central black disk in panels (a) and (b) marks the inner boundary of the COR2 field of view at r = 2.5 Rs. (c) The … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: CME–streamer interaction during the early CME propagation. (a)(b) WL images observed by STA/COR2 and synthesized from the AWSoM-R simulation, respectively, at 22:23 UT on 2023 February 24. These images are colored by the change in WL total brightness, shown as the ratio of the CME image to the pre-event background. The black disk in the center marks the inner boundary of the COR2 field of view at r = 2.5 R… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: 3D evolution of the modeled CME during the first 30 minutes after the CME eruption. Columns show snapshots at t = 0, 10, 20, and 30 minutes. In each panel, the inner boundary of SC at r = 1.1 Rs and selected magnetic field lines are colored by the Br strength, and magenta concentric circles mark heliocentric distances every 2 Rs. The plane cut is taken through the source region and colored by different par… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: CME-driven shock front at t = 30 minutes after the CME eruption, plotted in HGR coordinates and viewed from above the CME source region (AR 13229). Panels are colored by (a) Alfv´enic Mach number (MAlf), (b) shock angle (θBn), (c) density compression ratio (ρdown/ρup), and (d) proton thermal pressure upstream of the shock (Pth). Colored curves in each panel are the magnetic field lines connected to Earth (… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Time evolution of the shock properties at the cobpoints of Earth (green), STA (red), and SolO (blue) during the first 2 hours after the CME eruption. Panels from top to bottom show (a) cobpoint heliocentric distance (rcob), (b) upstream solar wind speed (Usw), (c) shock wave speed (Ushock), (d) Alfv´enic Mach number (MAlf), (e) shock angle (θBn), (f) density compression ratio (ρdown/ρup), and (g) upstream … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Modeled solar wind properties and energetic proton flux distribution at t = 2 hours after the CME eruption. (a) Solar wind speed (Usw) and (b) MHD-turbulence-based parallel mean free path (λ∥, MHD) for 10 keV injected protons in the solar equatorial plane of the SC domain. White curves indicate magnetic field lines, colored curves indicate field lines connected to Earth (green), STA (red), and SolO (blue),… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Comparison between observed and simulated energetic proton time–intensity profiles at (a) L1/SOHO near Earth, (b) STA, and (c) SolO from 18:00 UT on 2023 February 24 to 20:00 UT on 2023 February 25. The solid and dashed curves indicate spacecraft observations and M-FLAMPA simulation results, respectively, in four representative energy channels, the same as those in Figures 1(c)–(e). The vertical dash-dotte… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Energy-dependent comparison between M-FLAMPA simulations and energetic-proton observa￾tions at Earth (green; left column), STA (red; middle column), and SolO (blue; right column). Panels from top to bottom show (a)–(c) the time of peak intensity after the CME eruption, (d)–(f) peak intensity, and (g)–(i) time-integrated fluence as functions of the proton kinetic energy. In each panel, the solid curve mark… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

For solar energetic particles (SEPs), it is generally expected that observers magnetically closer to the eruption source region exhibit higher particle intensities than those poorly connected to the eruption site. However, the 2023 February 24 SEP event departs from this simple picture: Earth and STA, near 1 au, are nominally better connected to the source region, whereas Solar Orbiter (SolO), at 0.77 au but less favorably connected, observed SEP fluxes more than an order of magnitude higher. This difference cannot be simply explained by nominal magnetic connectivity or radial scaling of SEP fluxes alone. To investigate this behavior, we perform a global magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the associated coronal mass ejection (CME) using the Alfv\'{e}n Wave Solar-atmosphere Model-Realtime (AWSoM-R). The simulation reveals that the CME flux rope originates close to a coronal streamer and as it propagates and expands, the CME-driven shock is effectively distorted, developing into two distinct flanks with different strengths. Although the three spacecraft are separated by only $\lesssim$30$^{\circ}$ in heliolongitude, their magnetic footpoints differ by $\gtrsim$50$^{\circ}$ in longitude because of a nearby stream interaction region. Specifically, Earth and STA connect to a weaker shock region, while SolO connects to the shock nose with a higher compression ratio and more efficient particle acceleration. We further simulate SEPs using the Multiple-Field-Line Advection Model for Particle Acceleration (M-FLAMPA) coupled with AWSoM-R, obtaining results that reproduce the observed flux differences among the three spacecraft, demonstrating that this counterintuitive behavior results from their connections to different regions of the inhomogeneous CME-driven shock.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper examines the 2023 February 24 SEP event in which SolO at 0.77 au observed fluxes more than an order of magnitude higher than Earth and STA despite nominally poorer magnetic connection to the source. AWSoM-R global MHD simulation of the CME shows that a nearby stream interaction region shifts the spacecraft footpoints by ≳50° in longitude, placing SolO on the nose of an inhomogeneous CME-driven shock (higher compression) while Earth and STA connect to weaker flanks; M-FLAMPA particle transport then reproduces the observed flux ordering.

Significance. If the modeled connectivity and shock properties hold, the result demonstrates that stream interaction regions can dominate SEP connectivity over nominal Parker-spiral estimates and that shock inhomogeneity can produce order-of-magnitude intensity differences across ≲30° longitudinal separations, with direct implications for SEP forecasting and interpretation of multi-spacecraft observations.

major comments (2)
  1. [AWSoM-R simulation results (near §3–4)] The central explanatory power rests on the AWSoM-R-derived footpoint mapping and the assignment of SolO to the shock nose versus Earth/STA to the flanks. No quantitative validation is supplied: the manuscript does not compare simulated solar-wind speed, density, or magnetic sector at the three spacecraft locations near event onset against the in-situ measurements that would independently confirm the >50° footpoint shift or the relative compression ratios.
  2. [M-FLAMPA transport results and abstract] The abstract and results state that M-FLAMPA reproduces the observed flux ordering, yet no error bars on connectivity angles, flux-ratio metrics, or sensitivity tests to initial coronal conditions or grid resolution are reported. Without these, it is unclear whether the ordering is robust or sensitive to modest (~20–30°) errors in the modeled stream-interface location.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Shock analysis] Clarify the precise definition of 'compression ratio' used for the shock nose versus flanks and how it is extracted from the MHD solution.
  2. [Figures] Figure captions should explicitly state the time of the connectivity mapping relative to the CME launch and the spacecraft radial distances used.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments, which help clarify the presentation of our simulation results. We respond to each major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [AWSoM-R simulation results (near §3–4)] The central explanatory power rests on the AWSoM-R-derived footpoint mapping and the assignment of SolO to the shock nose versus Earth/STA to the flanks. No quantitative validation is supplied: the manuscript does not compare simulated solar-wind speed, density, or magnetic sector at the three spacecraft locations near event onset against the in-situ measurements that would independently confirm the >50° footpoint shift or the relative compression ratios.

    Authors: We agree that quantitative validation against in-situ data would strengthen the claims. In the revised manuscript we will add direct comparisons of simulated solar-wind speed, density, and magnetic sector at the three spacecraft locations with the corresponding observations near event onset. These comparisons will be used to assess the modeled footpoint shift and relative compression ratios. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [M-FLAMPA transport results and abstract] The abstract and results state that M-FLAMPA reproduces the observed flux ordering, yet no error bars on connectivity angles, flux-ratio metrics, or sensitivity tests to initial coronal conditions or grid resolution are reported. Without these, it is unclear whether the ordering is robust or sensitive to modest (~20–30°) errors in the modeled stream-interface location.

    Authors: We acknowledge that uncertainty quantification and sensitivity tests were not included. In revision we will perform sensitivity experiments varying initial coronal conditions and grid resolution, report estimated uncertainties on connectivity angles and flux ratios, and demonstrate that the flux ordering remains robust under modest shifts in the stream-interface location. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; forward MHD+particle simulation matches independent multi-spacecraft observations

full rationale

The derivation proceeds by driving AWSoM-R with observed CME parameters to obtain magnetic footpoints and shock compression ratios, then running M-FLAMPA to compute SEP fluxes that are compared directly to the three spacecraft time series. No SEP flux data are used to tune model parameters, no self-citation supplies a uniqueness theorem that forces the connectivity result, and the ordering emerges from the inhomogeneous shock geometry rather than being imposed by construction. The central claim therefore remains externally falsifiable against the measured fluxes.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The explanation rests on the domain assumption that the chosen MHD model faithfully reproduces the CME-driven shock geometry and that magnetic connectivity can be traced accurately from 1 au back to the shock surface.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption AWSoM-R simulation accurately captures CME propagation, shock distortion, and magnetic connectivity differences among the spacecraft.
    Invoked to link observed flux differences to shock regions; no independent verification details given in abstract.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5883 in / 1204 out tokens · 25209 ms · 2026-06-28T11:21:05.156386+00:00 · methodology

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. Radio Spectral Imaging and MHD Modeling of a CME-Driven Shock: Connecting Solar Type II Radio Bursts with Shock-Surface Magnetic Geometry

    astro-ph.SR 2026-06 unverdicted novelty 6.0

    Type II radio burst sources align with quasi-perpendicular shock regions of enhanced Mach number in the simulation, with fundamental-harmonic offsets matching the projected shock-surface magnetic field direction.

Reference graph

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