Pith. sign in

REVIEW 2 major objections 1 minor 109 references

A survey of hypervelocity D6 stars finds their birth rate is only a few percent of the Galactic SN Ia rate.

Reviewed by Pith at T0; open to challenge. T0 means a machine referee read the full paper against a public rubric. the ladder, T0–T4 →

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

T0 review · grok-4.3

2026-06-30 10:42 UTC pith:BFGW5AYV

load-bearing objection The paper's real contribution is a clean, fully classified sample of hypervelocity candidates with three new D6 stars, but the claim that D6 birth rates are only a few percent of the SN Ia rate rests on forward-modeling choices that are not yet stress-tested in the text. the 2 major comments →

arxiv 2606.11293 v2 pith:BFGW5AYV submitted 2026-06-09 astro-ph.SR

A systematic survey for hypervelocity runaways from thermonuclear supernovae

Kareem El-Badry , Klaus Werner , Ken J. Shen , Jay Strader , Antonio C. Rodriguez , Jiwon Jesse Han , Vedant Chandra , Laura Chomiuk
show 11 more authors
Zachary P. Vanderbosch Lisa Blomberg Natsuko Yamaguchi Pranav Nagarajan Ilaria Caiazzo Jan van Roestel Hila Glanz Tin Long Sunny Wong Aakash Bhat Mark A. Hollands Boris T. G\"ansicke
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.SR
keywords hypervelocity starswhite dwarfsType Ia supernovaeD6 starsGaia surveyrunaway companionsbinary evolution
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal T4 reserved

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper carries out a Gaia-based search for hypervelocity runaway stars that could be the surviving companions from thermonuclear supernovae in double white-dwarf binaries. It classifies all 92 candidates and identifies ten suspected D6 stars, then forward-models the survey using several proposed evolutionary models for these stars. Models with intermediate heating best reproduce the observed magnitudes, distances, and kinematic ages, while shock-only heating is too faint and full reheating is too bright. The matching models require D6 birth rates of only a few percent of the total SN Ia rate, implying that most events destroy both white dwarfs.

Core claim

Forward modeling shows that no single D6 evolutionary model reproduces the full observed diversity, but intermediate-heating models best match the magnitude, distance, and kinematic-age distributions and require birth rates of only a few percent of the Galactic SN Ia rate.

What carries the argument

Forward-modeling the survey using different D6 star evolutionary models coupled to a Galactic population model and the survey selection function.

Load-bearing premise

The D6 evolutionary models, when combined with the Galactic model and survey selection function, correctly predict the detectable population of runaways.

What would settle it

Detection of a substantially larger D6 population or a clear mismatch between observed and predicted distance-velocity distributions under the intermediate-heating models.

Watch this falsifier — get emailed when new claim-graph text bears on it.

If this is right

  • Shock-heating-only models underpredict the number and brightness of observed D6 stars.
  • Fully reheated models overpredict luminosity and lifetime compared to the sample.
  • Intermediate heating from violent mergers or partial disruption matches the data best.
  • The low birth rate implies most SN Ia events leave no surviving runaway companion.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the low rate holds, channels in which both white dwarfs explode must dominate over single-runaway channels.
  • Diversity in observed D6 temperatures suggests multiple remnant masses and heating histories operate together.
  • Larger samples from future Gaia releases could distinguish heating mechanisms by refining the kinematic-age distribution.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper conducts a systematic Gaia-based survey for hypervelocity runaway stars from thermonuclear supernovae, selecting 92 candidates on tangential velocity and color, classifying all via spectroscopy and archival data to yield 10 D6 stars (3 new) and 3 LP 40-365 stars. Forward-modeling couples several D6 evolutionary scenarios (shock-only, fully reheated, intermediate heating) to a Galactic model and the survey selection function; no single model reproduces the full observed diversity, but intermediate-heating models best match the magnitude, distance, and kinematic-age distributions, implying D6 birth rates of only a few percent of the Galactic SN Ia rate.

Significance. If the forward-modeling is robust, the result supplies direct demographic constraints on the D6 channel and suggests it is sub-dominant among SN Ia progenitors, with most events arising from double-degenerate systems in which both white dwarfs explode. The complete candidate classification and multi-model comparison are strengths; the work also highlights that observed D6 diversity likely requires a range of remnant masses, ages, and heating mechanisms.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract (forward-modeling paragraph): the central inference that intermediate-heating models are preferred and yield birth rates of only a few percent of the SN Ia rate rests on the assumption that the chosen evolutionary tracks, when coupled to the Galactic potential and tangential-velocity + color selection function, accurately predict the detectable population. No quantitative goodness-of-fit metric (e.g., Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic or likelihood) or sensitivity analysis to variations in heating prescriptions or ~1000 km/s dynamics is reported, so shifts in the relative predicted numbers could alter both model preference and the rate ratio.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: the statement that 'models with intermediate heating... best match' is presented without tabulated predicted versus observed distributions or error budgets on the inferred birth rate, making it difficult to assess how strongly the data discriminate among the three heating scenarios.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract notes model dependence of the birth rate but does not quantify the range across the best-matching models; a brief numerical interval would clarify the claim.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the careful and constructive review. The comments correctly identify that the abstract's summary of the forward-modeling results would be strengthened by explicit reference to quantitative comparisons. We address each point below and will revise the manuscript accordingly.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract (forward-modeling paragraph): the central inference that intermediate-heating models are preferred and yield birth rates of only a few percent of the SN Ia rate rests on the assumption that the chosen evolutionary tracks, when coupled to the Galactic potential and tangential-velocity + color selection function, accurately predict the detectable population. No quantitative goodness-of-fit metric (e.g., Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic or likelihood) or sensitivity analysis to variations in heating prescriptions or ~1000 km/s dynamics is reported, so shifts in the relative predicted numbers could alter both model preference and the rate ratio.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract would benefit from a clearer statement of the quantitative basis for model preference. The full manuscript presents the comparisons via direct overlays of model predictions against the observed distributions of magnitude, distance, and kinematic age (Figures 8–10), with the intermediate-heating models showing the closest overall agreement. To strengthen the presentation, we will add a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (or equivalent) on the key distributions in the revised manuscript and include a brief sensitivity discussion on heating variations. The abstract will be updated to reference these quantitative elements. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the statement that 'models with intermediate heating... best match' is presented without tabulated predicted versus observed distributions or error budgets on the inferred birth rate, making it difficult to assess how strongly the data discriminate among the three heating scenarios.

    Authors: The abstract is space-limited, but the manuscript already contains tabulated model predictions versus observations (Table 3) and birth-rate estimates with uncertainties derived from the forward modeling. We will revise the abstract to include a concise clause noting that the preference for intermediate-heating models is based on the lowest residuals across multiple distributions, and we will ensure the error budgets on the rate ratios are more prominently stated in the main text for clarity. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity: forward-modeling uses independent observations and external models

full rationale

The paper's central steps involve selecting 92 candidates via Gaia tangential velocity and color cuts, classifying them spectroscopically, then forward-modeling the survey selection function under D6 evolutionary scenarios drawn from prior literature. These models are coupled to a Galactic potential to predict detectable magnitude/distance/kinematic-age distributions, which are compared to the observed sample to identify best-matching heating prescriptions and to infer birth rates. No equation or claim reduces a derived quantity to its own input by construction; the observed sample supplies independent data, and the evolutionary models are not redefined or fitted within this work. Birth-rate inference is a standard population-synthesis comparison, not a self-definitional or renamed prediction. No self-citation is load-bearing for the uniqueness of any result. The derivation remains self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central inference depends on the accuracy of the evolutionary models and the assumption that all classified candidates are genuine runaways from thermonuclear SNe. No new entities postulated.

free parameters (1)
  • D6 birth rate = a few percent of SN Ia rate
    Derived from forward modeling to match the number and properties of observed candidates under different evolutionary scenarios
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption The Gaia-inferred tangential velocities and colors provide a simple, unbiased selection function for hypervelocity runaways
    Central to candidate selection and forward modeling
  • domain assumption The evolutionary models for D6 stars (shock heating, full reheating, intermediate) correctly describe the post-explosion evolution
    Tested multiple models; intermediate best fits but none perfect

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5979 in / 1468 out tokens · 62368 ms · 2026-06-30T10:42:02.970598+00:00 · methodology

0 comments
read the original abstract

The explosion of a white dwarf (WD) in a close binary can launch a surviving runaway star at velocities of $\gtrsim 1000\, \rm km\,s^{-1}$. Such runaways provide a direct probe of thermonuclear supernovae (SNe) in double-degenerate binaries. Several candidate runaways are known, but their evolutionary states and the demographics of the broader population are uncertain. To enable robust population inference, we carry out a systematic survey for hypervelocity runaways with a simple selection function, selecting candidates based on large Gaia-inferred tangential velocities and blue colors. We classify 100% of the resulting 92 candidates using a combination of spectroscopic follow-up and archival data. The search yields ten suspected D$^6$ stars and three LP 40-365 stars. Three D$^6$ stars are new discoveries, including two hot ($T_{\rm eff} > 50,000$ K) objects and one cool ($T_{\rm eff}\approx 7,000$ K) object. We forward-model our survey under several proposed D$^6$ star evolutionary models, coupling each to a Galactic model and the survey selection function. No single model reproduces the observed diversity of D$^6$ stars, which likely reflects a range of remnant masses, ages, and heating mechanisms. Models in which runaway companions are heated by SN shocks alone are too faint and short-lived to explain most of the observed sample, while fully reheated models are too luminous and long-lived. Models with intermediate heating, as occurs in some simulations of violent mergers and partially disrupted remnants, best match the observed magnitude, distance, and kinematic-age distributions. The inferred D$^6$ star birth rate is model dependent, but the models that best match the observed population require rates of only a few percent of the Galactic SN Ia rate, perhaps implying that most SNe Ia result from WD binaries in which both components explode.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.11293 by Aakash Bhat, Antonio C. Rodriguez, Boris T. G\"ansicke, Hila Glanz, Ilaria Caiazzo, Jan van Roestel, Jay Strader, Jiwon Jesse Han, Kareem El-Badry, Ken J. Shen, Klaus Werner, Laura Chomiuk, Lisa Blomberg, Mark A. Hollands, Natsuko Yamaguchi, Pranav Nagarajan, Tin Long Sunny Wong, Vedant Chandra, Zachary P. Vanderbosch.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: — Basic properties of the 92 candidates returned by our Gaia search. Gray points show false positives, while colored points show different classes of spectroscopically confirmed runaways: hot D6 stars (cyan), cool D6 stars (red), and LP 40-365 stars (green). Panels show sky positions, the Gaia color–apparent magnitude diagram, radial velocity as a function of the 1σ tangential-velocity lower limit v⊥,lower… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: — Comparison of the X-shooter spectra of J1251-5059, a new D6 star discovered by our search (black) and D6-1, a brighter and nearer source discovered by Shen et al. (2018b). The spectrum of D6-1 is multiplied by 0.1 so that the flux scales of the two sources are consistent. Overall, the two stars have extremely similar spectra after this rescaling, indicating that they have similar temperatures and surface… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: — GMOS spectrum and RV constraints for J0812-5943, a new hot D6 star discovered by our search. Left: coadded, normalized GMOS spectrum (black) compared to a normalized Kurucz model with Teff = 49,000 K, log g = 7.40, and a C/O-dominated composition (red). Right: χ 2 − χ 2 min as a function of radial velocity. Gray curves show the individual exposures, while the black curve shows their sum. The best-fit rad… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: — Normalized spectrum of J1949+0745 compared to a He-dominated NLTE atmosphere model calculated with TMAP. The model has Teff = 65,000 K, log g = 8.5, and abundances He = 0.58, C = 0.25, and O = 0.17 (mass fractions). It reproduces most of the strongest lines, supporting classification of J1949+0745 as a hot D6 star, but the model does not fully match all features in the spectrum. In particular, the C IV l… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: — Summary of the known population of hypervelocity WDs and related objects. In each panel, we show suspected hot and cool D6 stars in cyan and red, LP 40-365 stars in green, and the runaway sdB US 708 in magenta. The three new discoveries presented in this work are shown with a black outline. Top left: color-magnitude diagram, with the Gaia 100 pc sample shown for context. Top right: HR diagram. Bottom lef… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: — Comparison of observed D6 stars recovered by our search (red and cyan) with simulated populations (black) for shocked-donor models from Wong & Bildsten (2025). Each column shows a different model, labeled by the mass of the runaway star. In this and the following population-comparison figures, the simulated points show a random subset of 10 detectable sources after scaling the model birth rate to produce… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: — Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: — Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: — Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: — Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: — Comparison of the observed and underlying D6 star population. Gray points show all simulated runaways launched in the last 10 Myr under the Glanz et al. (2025) evolutionary model, while red points show the subset detectable to our search. The panels show sky position, apparent magnitude as a function of distance and observed color, and height above the Galactic plane as a function of midplane-crossing t… view at source ↗

Review history (2 revisions) →

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

109 extracted references · 104 canonical work pages · 11 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    B., White C

    Bauer E. B., White C. J., Bildsten L., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4ea4 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ApJ...887...68B 887, 68

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4ea4 2019

  2. [2]

    B., Chandra V., Shen K

    Bauer E. B., Chandra V., Shen K. J., Hermes J. J., 2021, @doi [ ] 10.3847/2041-8213/ac432d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ApJ...923L..34B 923, L34

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac432d 2021

  3. [3]

    B \'e dard A., Bergeron P., Brassard P., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/ac609d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ApJ...930....8B 930, 8

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac609d 2022

  4. [4]

    Belokurov V., et al., 2020, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/staa1522 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.496.1922B 496, 1922

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1522 2020

  5. [5]

    B., Pakmor R., Shen K

    Bhat A., Bauer E. B., Pakmor R., Shen K. J., Caiazzo I., Rajamuthukumar A. S., El-Badry K., Kerzendorf W. E., 2025, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202451371 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025A&A...693A.114B 693, A114

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451371 2025

  6. [6]

    Discovery of a runaway star likely ejected by a Type Iax Supernova

    Bhat A., Hollands M., Dorsch M., Geier S., Heber U., Koester D., Pakmor R., Shen K. J., 2026a, @doi [arXiv e-prints] 10.48550/arXiv.2602.23900 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026arXiv260223900B p. arXiv:2602.23900

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.23900

  7. [7]

    J., Bauer E

    Bhat A., Pakmor R., Shen K. J., Bauer E. B., Rajamuthukumar A. S., 2026b, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202557683 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026A&A...706A.375B 706, A375

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202557683

  8. [8]

    Blaauw A., 1961, , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961BAN....15..265B 15, 265

    1961

  9. [9]

    Bland-Hawthorn J., Gerhard O., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023441 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ARA&A..54..529B 54, 529

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023441 2016

  10. [10]

    C., M \'e sz \'a ros S., Fleming S

    Bohlin R. C., M \'e sz \'a ros S., Fleming S. W., Gordon K. D., Koekemoer A. M., Kov \'a cs J., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-3881/aa6ba9 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017AJ....153..234B 153, 234

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa6ba9 2017

  11. [11]

    J., Townsley D

    Boos S. J., Townsley D. M., Shen K. J., 2024, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/ad5da2 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ApJ...972..200B 972, 200

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5da2 2024

  12. [12]

    Bovy J., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0067-0049/216/2/29 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ApJS..216...29B 216, 29

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0067-0049/216/2/29 2015

  13. [13]

    Braudo J., Soker N., 2024, @doi [The Open Journal of Astrophysics] 10.21105/astro.2310.16554 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024OJAp....7E...7B 7, 7

    work page doi:10.21105/astro.2310.16554 2024

  14. [14]

    R., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122230 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ARA&A..53...15B 53, 15

    Brown W. R., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122230 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ARA&A..53...15B 53, 15

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122230 2015

  15. [15]

    R., Beers T

    Brown W. R., Beers T. C., Wilhelm R., Allende Prieto C., Geller M. J., Kenyon S. J., Kurtz M. J., 2008, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-6256/135/2/564 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AJ....135..564B 135, 564

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/2/564 2008

  16. [16]

    R., Anderson J., Gnedin O

    Brown W. R., Anderson J., Gnedin O. Y., Bond H. E., Geller M. J., Kenyon S. J., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/49 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ApJ...804...49B 804, 49

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/804/1/49 2015

  17. [17]

    A., Clayton, G

    Cardelli J. A., Clayton G. C., Mathis J. S., 1989, @doi [ ] 10.1086/167900 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989ApJ...345..245C 345, 245

    work page doi:10.1086/167900 1989

  18. [18]

    Chandra V., et al., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stac883 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022MNRAS.512.6122C 512, 6122

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac883 2022

  19. [19]

    C., Crain, J

    Clemens J. C., Crain J. A., Anderson R., 2004, in Moorwood A. F. M., Iye M., eds, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series Vol. 5492, Ground-based Instrumentation for Astronomy. pp 331--340, @doi 10.1117/12.550069

    work page doi:10.1117/12.550069 2004

  20. [20]

    Cui X.-Q., et al., 2012, @doi [Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics] 10.1088/1674-4527/12/9/003 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012RAA....12.1197C 12, 1197

    work page doi:10.1088/1674-4527/12/9/003 2012

  21. [21]

    Cukanovaite E., Tremblay P.-E., Bergeron P., Freytag B., Ludwig H.-G., Steffen M., 2021, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/staa3684 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MNRAS.501.5274C 501, 5274

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3684 2021

  22. [22]

    De Angeli F., et al., 2023, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202243680 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023A&A...674A...2D 674, A2

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243680 2023

  23. [23]

    El-Badry K., 2025, @doi [The Open Journal of Astrophysics] 10.33232/001c.138448 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025OJAp....8E..62E 8, 62

    work page doi:10.33232/001c.138448 2025

  24. [24]

    M., 2021, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stab323 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MNRAS.506.2269E 506, 2269

    El-Badry K., Rix H.-W., Heintz T. M., 2021, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stab323 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MNRAS.506.2269E 506, 2269

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab323 2021

  25. [25]

    El-Badry K., et al., 2023, @doi [The Open Journal of Astrophysics] 10.21105/astro.2306.03914 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023OJAp....6E..28E 6, 28

    work page doi:10.21105/astro.2306.03914 2023

  26. [26]

    Eyer L., et al., 2023, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202244242 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023A&A...674A..13E 674, A13

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244242 2023

  27. [27]

    J., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/57 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...767...57F 767, 57

    Foley R. J., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/57 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...767...57F 767, 57

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/767/1/57 2013

  28. [28]

    The ESO Reflex environment

    Freudling W., Romaniello M., Bramich D. M., Ballester P., Forchi V., Garc \' a-Dabl \'o C. E., Moehler S., Neeser M. J., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201322494 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A&A...559A..96F 559, A96

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322494 2013

  29. [29]

    T., Koester D., Raddi R., Toloza O., Kepler S

    G \"a nsicke B. T., Koester D., Raddi R., Toloza O., Kepler S. O., 2020, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/staa1761 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.496.4079G 496, 4079

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1761 2020

  30. [30]

    Geier S., et al., 2015, @doi [Science] 10.1126/science.1259063 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Sci...347.1126G 347, 1126

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1259063 2015

  31. [31]

    Geier S., et al., 2024, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202450778 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024A&A...690A.368G 690, A368

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202450778 2024

  32. [32]

    B., Bhat A., Pakmor R., 2025, @doi [Nature Astronomy] 10.1038/s41550-025-02633-4 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025NatAs...9.1523G 9, 1523

    Glanz H., Perets H. B., Bhat A., Pakmor R., 2025, @doi [Nature Astronomy] 10.1038/s41550-025-02633-4 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025NatAs...9.1523G 9, 1523

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02633-4 2025

  33. [33]

    Griffin R., 1973, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/162.3.243 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973MNRAS.162..243G 162, 243

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/162.3.243 1973

  34. [34]

    Hayashi C., 1961, @doi [ ] 10.1093/pasj/13.4.450 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961PASJ...13..450H 13, 450

    work page doi:10.1093/pasj/13.4.450 1961

  35. [35]

    , keywords =

    Hills J. G., 1988, @doi [ ] 10.1038/331687a0 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988Natur.331..687H 331, 687

    work page doi:10.1038/331687a0 1988

  36. [36]

    A., Heber U., O'Toole S

    Hirsch H. A., Heber U., O'Toole S. J., Bresolin F., 2005, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:200500212 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005A&A...444L..61H 444, L61

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500212 2005

  37. [37]

    A., Shen K

    Hollands M. A., Shen K. J., Raddi R., G \"a nsicke B. T., Bauer E. B., Rebassa-Mansergas A., 2025, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/staf950 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025MNRAS.541.2231H 541, 2231

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf950 2025

  38. [38]

    M., Jørgensen, I., Allington-Smith, J

    Hook I. M., J rgensen I., Allington-Smith J. R., Davies R. L., Metcalfe N., Murowinski R. G., Crampton D., 2004, @doi [ ] 10.1086/383624 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PASP..116..425H 116, 425

    work page doi:10.1086/383624 2004

  39. [39]

    I., Tutukov A

    Iben Jr. I., Tutukov A. V., 1984, @doi [ ] 10.1086/190932 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984ApJS...54..335I 54, 335

    work page doi:10.1086/190932 1984

  40. [40]

    and Bauer, Evan B

    Jermyn A. S., et al., 2023, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4365/acae8d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJS..265...15J 265, 15

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acae8d 2023

  41. [41]

    Justham S., Wolf C., Podsiadlowski P., Han Z., 2009, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:200810106 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009A&A...493.1081J 493, 1081

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810106 2009

  42. [42]

    O., et al., 2016, @doi [Science] 10.1126/science.aad6705 , 352, 67

    Kepler S. O., et al., 2016, @doi [Science] 10.1126/science.aad6705 , 352, 67

    work page doi:10.1126/science.aad6705 2016

  43. [43]

    E., Schmidt B

    Kerzendorf W. E., Schmidt B. P., Laird J. B., Podsiadlowski P., Bessell M. S., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/759/1/7 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...759....7K 759, 7

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/759/1/7 2012

  44. [44]

    E., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/99 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...774...99K 774, 99

    Kerzendorf W. E., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/99 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJ...774...99K 774, 99

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/774/2/99 2013

  45. [45]

    E., Childress M., Scharw \"a chter J., Do T., Schmidt B

    Kerzendorf W. E., Childress M., Scharw \"a chter J., Do T., Schmidt B. P., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/782/1/27 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ApJ...782...27K 782, 27

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/782/1/27 2014

  46. [46]

    E., Strampelli G., Shen K

    Kerzendorf W. E., Strampelli G., Shen K. J., Schwab J., Pakmor R., Do T., Buchner J., Rest A., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sty1357 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018MNRAS.479..192K 479, 192

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1357 2018

  47. [47]

    J., Kepler, S

    Kleinman S. J., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0067-0049/204/1/5 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJS..204....5K 204, 5

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/204/1/5 2013

  48. [48]

    Koester D., 2010, Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MmSAI..81..921K 81, 921

    2010

  49. [49]

    E., et al., 2020, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stz3081 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.491.2465K 491, 2465

    Koposov S. E., et al., 2020, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stz3081 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020MNRAS.491.2465K 491, 2465

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3081 2020

  50. [50]

    L., 1993, ATLAS9 Stellar Atmosphere Programs and 2 km/s grid , Kurucz CD-ROM No

    Kurucz R. L., 1993, ATLAS9 Stellar Atmosphere Programs and 2 km/s grid , Kurucz CD-ROM No. 13

    1993

  51. [51]

    Leonard P. J. T., 1991, @doi [ ] 10.1086/115704 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991AJ....101..562L 101, 562

    work page doi:10.1086/115704 1991

  52. [52]

    J., Langer, N., & Tout, C

    Li W., Chornock R., Leaman J., Filippenko A. V., Poznanski D., Wang X., Ganeshalingam M., Mannucci F., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18162.x , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011MNRAS.412.1473L 412, 1473

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18162.x 2011

  53. [53]

    Lindegren L., 2018, R e-normalising the astrometric chi-square in G aia D R 2, GAIA-C3-TN-LU-LL-124, https://dms.cosmos.esa.int/COSMOS/doc_fetch.php?id=3757412

    2018

  54. [54]

    Lindegren L., et al., 2021, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202039709 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021A&A...649A...2L 649, A2

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039709 2021

  55. [55]

    Mackensen N., Reindl N., Werner K., Dorsch M., Tan S., 2025, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202554639 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025A&A...700A..24M 700, A24

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554639 2025

  56. [56]

    S., Fremling, C., & Kasliwal, M

    Mandigo-Stoba M. S., Fremling C., Kasliwal M. M., 2022, @doi [Journal of Open Source Software] 10.21105/joss.03612 , 7, 3612

    work page doi:10.21105/joss.03612 2022

  57. [57]

    I., Rowell , G

    Maoz D., Mannucci F., Brandt T. D., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21871.x , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012MNRAS.426.3282M 426, 3282

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21871.x 2012

  58. [58]

    Maoz D., Mannucci F., Nelemans G., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-141031 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ARA&A..52..107M 52, 107

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-141031 2014

  59. [59]

    Marietta E., Burrows A., Fryxell B., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1086/313392 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ApJS..128..615M 128, 615

    work page doi:10.1086/313392 2000

  60. [60]

    The MagE Spectrograph

    Marshall J. L., et al., 2008, in McLean I. S., Casali M. M., eds, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series Vol. 7014, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy II. p. 701454 ( @eprint arXiv 0807.3774 ), @doi 10.1117/12.789972

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1117/12.789972 2008

  61. [61]

    arXiv:2602.23414

    Mehta V., Tiwari V., Pakmor R., Singh D., Fisher R., 2026, arXiv e-prints, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026arXiv260223414M p. arXiv:2602.23414

    work page arXiv 2026

  62. [62]

    C., van Roestel J., Roulston B., 2023, @doi [arXiv e-prints] 10.48550/arXiv.2304.07324 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv230407324N p

    Nagarajan P., El-Badry K., Rodriguez A. C., van Roestel J., Roulston B., 2023, @doi [arXiv e-prints] 10.48550/arXiv.2304.07324 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv230407324N p. arXiv:2304.07324

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2304.07324 2023

  63. [63]

    Neunteufel P., 2020, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202037792 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020A&A...641A..52N 641, A52

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202037792 2020

  64. [64]

    S., Justham S., Podsiadlowski P., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202142864 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022A&A...663A..91N 663, A91

    Neunteufel P., Preece H., Kruckow M., Geier S., Hamers A. S., Justham S., Podsiadlowski P., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/202142864 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022A&A...663A..91N 663, A91

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142864 2022

  65. [65]

    Nottale L., Chamaraux P., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201832707 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018A&A...614A..45N 614, A45

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832707 2018

  66. [66]

    B., Gunn J

    Oke J. B., Gunn J. E., 1982, @doi [ ] 10.1086/131027 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982PASP...94..586O 94, 586

    work page doi:10.1086/131027 1982

  67. [67]

    B., Cohen, J

    Oke J. B., et al., 1995, @doi [ ] 10.1086/133562 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PASP..107..375O 107, 375

    work page doi:10.1086/133562 1995

  68. [68]

    Pakmor R., et al., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stac3107 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022MNRAS.517.5260P 517, 5260

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3107 2022

  69. [69]

    arXiv:2510.11781

    Pakmor R., et al., 2025, @doi [arXiv e-prints] 10.48550/arXiv.2510.11781 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025arXiv251011781P p. arXiv:2510.11781

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2510.11781 2025

  70. [70]

    M., Taam R

    Pan K.-C., Ricker P. M., Taam R. E., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/21 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...760...21P 760, 21

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/760/1/21 2012

  71. [71]

    Paxton B., Bildsten L., Dotter A., Herwig F., Lesaffre P., Timmes F., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/3 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJS..192....3P 192, 3

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/3 2011

  72. [72]

    Paxton B., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/4 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ApJS..208....4P 208, 4

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/4 2013

  73. [73]

    Paxton B., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0067-0049/220/1/15 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ApJS..220...15P 220, 15

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0067-0049/220/1/15 2015

  74. [74]

    Paxton B., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4365/aaa5a8 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ApJS..234...34P 234, 34

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aaa5a8 2018

  75. [75]

    Paxton B., et al., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4365/ab2241 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ApJS..243...10P 243, 10

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab2241 2019

  76. [76]

    A., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.1088/1538-3873/ab215d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PASP..131h4503P 131, 084503

    Perley D. A., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.1088/1538-3873/ab215d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PASP..131h4503P 131, 084503

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab215d 2019

  77. [77]

    M., Sim S

    Pollin J. M., Sim S. A., Pakmor R., Callan F. P., Collins C. E., Shingles L. J., R \"o pke F. K., Srivastav S., 2024, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stae1909 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024MNRAS.533.3036P 533, 3036

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1909 2024

  78. [78]

    X., Hennawi J

    Prochaska J. X., Hennawi J. F., Westfall K. B., Cooke R. J., Wang F., Hsyu T., Davies F. B., Farina E. P., 2020, arXiv e-prints, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020arXiv200506505P p. arXiv:2005.06505

    work page arXiv 2020

  79. [79]

    J., Bildsten L., Boos S

    Prust L. J., Bildsten L., Boos S. J., 2026, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/ae22db , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026ApJ...997...17P 997, 17

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae22db 2026

  80. [80]

    Raddi R., et al., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stz1618 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019MNRAS.489.1489R 489, 1489

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1618 2019

Showing first 80 references.